Background
In 1899, the Anglo-Egyptian Condominium was declared over Sudan (which consisted of present-day Sudan and South Sudan) (DeFeo, 2017). To facilitate their rule they divided the country into the North and the South. The North was predominately Arabic-speaking and Muslim, while the South was more tribal in nature, speaking a number of local languages, and Christian/Animist in their belief (Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018). The British believed that the South was not yet ready to develop and marginalised them from modernisation plans that they were implementing throughout the North (Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2018). The South was subjugated to worse treatment and discrimination not just by the British colonists but also by Sudanese Northerners (Collins, Spaulding, et al. 2019; Johnson, 2014).
Sudan finally gained its independence from the British in 1956, but by then the country had erupted into violence (Collins, Spaulding, et al. 2019). In 1995, members of the Sudan Defence Force Equatorial Corps mutinied in Torit (Ahmad, Collins, et al., 2019). The rebellion was put down by the central government forces but some troops escaped and continued to agitate against the North, triggering the start of the first Sudanese Civil War (Ahmad, Collins, et. al, 2019). This war came to an end in 1927 with the signing of the Addis Ababa Peace Agreement. However, the peace did not last long. War broke out again in 1983. The underlying causes for the fighting were similar in both cases. The South was frustrated and exhausted by the constant abuse, mistreatment, and oppression they were receiving from the North (Ahmad, Collins, et al., 2019). The Second Sudanese Civil War lasted longer than the first, ending January 2005 with the signing of the Comprehensive Peace Treaty (CPA). The treaty granted the South autonomous rule for 6-years (Comprehensive Peace Agreement, 2005). Once the 6-years were up the country would be allowed to vote for independence in a referendum. On July 9th, 2011, South Sudan became the world's youngest nation (Vox, 2016). 99% of the votes were in favour of independence and people took to the streets in celebration (BBC, 2011). Unfortunately, celebrations were short-lived, as small inter-ethnic conflicts slowly erupted throughout the country. Hopes for a peaceful future slowly died as the country rapidly disintegrated into a civil war on December 13, 2013 (DeFeo, 2017; Ahmad, Collins, et al., 2019). Ethnic tensions that had been ignored and set aside during the long fight began to re-emerge.
The conflict is often analysed as an ethnic war between the two largest ethnic groups in the country: the Dinka and the Nuer (de Waal, 2014). However, its nature is incredibly complex and multi-faceted. The following timeline aims breaks down significant events in the history of South Sudan from 1989 in hopes of providing a more nuanced understanding of the present-day situation in the country.
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An Interactive History
1899-2019
Arms Proliferation
After decades of fighting, it was inevitable that weapons would trickle down from military hands into civilian hands. Prior to independence in 2011 there were between 1.9 million to 3.2 million small arms and light weapons (SALW) in circulation, 66% in the hands of civilians (Skinner, 2012).
Over 34 countries provided weapons to South Sudan (Skinner, 2012). The following infographic synthesises who the main countries transferring weapons were and what their involvement consisted of between the 1980s and 2014.
Arms Proliferation
Arming Local Militias
During the Second South Sudanese Civil War multiple local militias were provided weapons and supported by Khartoum to fight against the SPLA in proxy wars throughout the country (Skinner, 2012). For Khartoum, the aim was to weaken the SPLA in any way possible, even if that meant supporting less powerful militias that were fighting for independence (Brewer, 2010).
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The SPLA also provided weapons to local militias so that they could protect themselves and their communities (Skinner, 2012). This gave the SPLA more space and time to devote to the fight against the North. Many communities formed defence forces themselves for greater protection.
Hover over the boxes below to learn a bit more about some of these local militias.
SSDF
The South Sudanese Defense Forces (SSDF) was funded by Khartoum throughout the second Sudanese civil war. The SSDF was absorbed into the SPLA in 2002, which has created a number of tensions within the South Sudanese army (Skinner, 2012).
WHITE ARMY
Different Nuer sub-groups tend to fight each other, but they also unite against external enemies such as the Murle (O'Brien, 2009). In the case of the second Sudanese civil war they joined Riek Machar in the SSDF to fight against the SPLA and became known as the “White Army”. This is an example of army generals and politicians manipulating ethnic kinships to gain a larger army (Pinaud, 2014).
MISSERIYA
The Misseriya is an Arab tribe from Western Sudan. During the second civil war, Khartoum flooded Unity with arms and Misseriya tribesmen to displace the civilian population and secure the oil fields (Skinner, 2012). The Misseriya seasonally migrate into South Sudan but have not been disarmed, causing feelings of insecurity amongst local South Sudanese communities.
GELWENG
In 1992, Daniel Awet, a member of the SPLA armed a group of cattle keepers, who were predominately Dinka to protect themselves from external threats such as the Nuer White Army, and to protect their cows. After the war the Gelweng lost their functions but they retained their weapons (O'Brien, 2009).